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-sector employment ( Tamirisa and Duenwald 2018 ). 1 Likewise, some subsidies may have a social-protection element, as they amount to a universal transfer to households, though here too the benefits are seen mostly by the rich, at least in absolute monetary terms, and incentives again are distorted (toward overconsumption) ( Figure 2 ). Countries in the region spend considerably on these ( Figure 3 ). Private outlays on education 2 and both domestic and foreign charitable spending in these areas (including off-budget, foreign-aid-funded spending) may also have a material impact